The evience suggests that PPP hold both in the short and long run Essay - 1

The evience suggests that PPP hold both in the short and long run - Essay Example an be substantial short-run deviations from PPP, but in the long run relative PPP holds remarkably well because fundamentals and arbitrage are dominant long-run economic forces† (Marewijk, chapter 20); In short run price level tends to be sticky and takes time to change (Rogoff, 1996). And that â€Å"Dorodian, Jung, and Boyd [1999] found that in the long-run, PPP tends to hold more often under a floating exchange rate regime than under a fixed exchange rate system† (Anorou, Braha & Ahmad, 2002). There is however some studies which focused on the short run basis of PPP. Chowdhry, Roll & Xia (2004) find that â€Å"relative PPP holds well in the short run in both single-country-pair OLS regressions and a pooled system regression† and that their evidence â€Å"for short-run relative PPP is unlikely to be driven by missing world factors or by real effects of inflation†. Further, â€Å"our results complement the findings from the long-run PPP tests, and help resolve the PPP puzzle in the short run†. They also have an evidence that â€Å"relative purchasing power parity holds quite well in the short run when inflation is extracted from stock prices†. â€Å"For small differences in annual inflation between the United States and the country concerned, the correlation between relative inflation and depreciation in each of the years seems low. Relative PPP appears to â€Å"hold more closely for countries experiencing relatively high inflation† (Tayl or & Taylor, 2004); â€Å"Finally, the IIRE is operative in both the short and long run in response to changes in the domestic price level† (Elwood & Fields, 1998). Based on those results, Click (1996), as mentioned by Fujiki & Kitamura in 2004 concludes that in â€Å"the time-series dimension, using the random-effects model, purchasing power parity holds, conditional upon the Balassa–Samuelson effect.† Chapter 18 — Exchange Rate Theories discusses the favorable effect of PPP in the short run over long run. â€Å"PPP holds even in the

Medication administration safety Research Paper

Medication administration safety - Research Paper Example According to a one year long study conducted at Albany Medical center, the number was medication errors was 3.99 per 1000 medications (Cardinale, 1997, 1).Most medication errors are said to occur owing to problems of both individuals as well the system (Montesi & Lechi, 2009, p652) and in either case these errors hamper the patients adversely. At the individual level health caregivers are prone to misread drugs labels, medicate the wrong patient, and administer wrong dosage or all of these. For example, bottles of cyclopentolate (1%) and tropicamide (1%) are often mistaken for each other. Both the medicines have a red cap which indicated their common drug class (cyclopegics) but makes them appear exactly identical except for their printed labels. Hospital employees often do not understand the color coding of caps and ignore label reading leading to medication error (Cohen, 2013, p72). Physicians too maybe responsible for some of these problems. Many a time’s handwritten prescr iptions bearing illegible drug dosage or names are misread by the pharmacists because of whom a potential medication error occurs. The pen and paper system maybe often interpreted wrongly leading to negative impacts on the patient and improper medical care. Dosage miscalculation is another fatal mistake. Dosage conversion from milligrams to milliliters etc are often calculated wrongly and the patient receives improper dose of medicine. Patients often take wrong medicines by themselves. This is a result of dearth of patient counseling and patient education in terms of self-medication. Medication errors are sometimes a product of system errors. The drug dispensing process right from medicine prescription to drug delivery is often not clearly defines and are not continuous. It is often seen that nurses, pharmacist and other employees engage in non-important talks preventing them from focusing on the job at hand. Hospital environmental too play a minor role in medication errors, for exa mple noise level, distractions, poor lighting etc are often the reasons due to which caregivers make mistakes. The most important factor for system based medication error is lack of knowledge and appropriate exposure. Today, medication administration safety is the top priority of any medical institution. Thus several strategies have been employed to minimize the possibility of medication errors worldwide. Several studies have proved that usage of technological advancements can helps reduce medication errors (Kaushal et al,2001) One of the most widely used technologies today is the Bar coded medication administration. A bar code is attached to each patient’s wrist and the nurse responsible for drug administration scans the wrist of the patient before drug administration to ensure the right medicine, dosage and patient. The system has the potential to point out errors in medication, medication administration route, dosage measurement or patient identity (Koppel et al 2008, p 42 0) The use of Bar code technology helps nurse practitioners avoid common mistakes and efficiently administer the drug. Personal Digital assistant technology is yet another advancement that can help nurses prevent medication administration errors. The device displays the patient details digitally at one time and increases efficiency of service. CPOE or Computer Physicians Order entry is

Managerial Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Managerial Economics - Assignment Example The firm would be worse off, if it produced in the short run because the total loss that the firm will incur in this case is 380 AED (120-500). It is prudent if the firm shuts down and saves 200 AED rather than losing 380 AED in the short run. At the point where the firm produces 30 units and sells each unit at 4 AED, MRC (marginal revenue cost) is less than AVC (average variable cost). Assuming that Coke has already attained the monopoly status such that Coke is a monopolist, Coke actively engages itself in price discrimination because it has price setting power (Carbaugh). Given that there is a difference in price elasticity of demand for Coke in various regions, the company varies its price and extracts consumer surplus, which leads to additional revenue and profit. Coke discriminates on price by selling its product to distributors at different prices. For instance, the price of the same can of Coke in Seattle is higher than it is in Sidney. Separately, consumers from the UK purchase Coke at a higher price, compared to consumers from other countries within the continent. When Coke is able to separate the markets, it makes profits denoted by area MC, P, X, Y + MC1, P1, X1, Y1. The price charged when Coke separates the market will be P while output Q will be produced in a relatively elastic sub-market. Coke will charge a lower price in a relatively inelastic sub-m arket (P1). When duopolists, Etisalat and Du form a cartel between themselves, the firms would want to maximize their joint profits by producing a smaller quantity and charging higher prices. The optimal total industrial output selected by Etisalat and Du would be the monopoly quantity (Agarwala). It would be agreed that Etisalat and Du contribute in production of the agreed quantity and then share the profit between them equally. Consequently, the price and output in the market will be affected in that the

Change context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Change context - Essay Example For example, one may question whether a halt in the organizations operations would result in the same changes observed and the consequent associated benefits, or, while in operation, what changes are the organization seeing in its context, that need to be taken into the account. A credible answer to these questions will allow the organization identify what is important and effective this will allow the organization to develop necessary activities that seek to drive the organization to an affirmative position, and communicate its impact in a better manner. Change doesn’t usually occur in an unprecedented manner, and arriving at a reasonably acceptable form of change requires assessment and implementation of strategies meant to accomplish the organizations set goals. In most cases, organizational change results from major external driving forces that the organization has little control over, such as need for increase in productivity, significant cuts in funding and need to address new market targets, among others. Normally, in a bid to keep up with these changes that affect the organization, unprecedented changes must occur, devolving the organizations structure to newer improved standards that can keep up with the changing environment. Such evolving changes may include formulation of new policies such as changing from a highly hasty decision making entrepreneurial tendency to one which observes calm and critical planning preceding decision. Such a move, which alters in the organizations operations results to organization-wide c hange. In comparison of three advertisements seeking to find viable individuals for employment in a managerial post, all the advertisements required highly trained individuals, with an adequate educational background. Also, the duties to be tasked to the manager were quite similar, including development of new organizational ideas, planning of the organizations expenditure, identification of issues affecting the

Monsanto Issue in Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Monsanto Issue in Europe - Essay Example This article will also discuss the global effects of the use of Monsanto products on humans, other organisms, and the environment. It will also give us some of the precautions that users of Monsanto products should consider before consuming the modified foods. The agricultural modified products in Europe banned due to claims of poisoning individuals. Due to the harmful factors associated with GMOs, Europe has involved its funds in fighting against the spread of such variety in its locality. It has only approved two varieties of GMOs to trade in their states. Varieties of corn and potato are licensed for trade (Wesley, Spital, and Lane 2002, p.3). Due to pressure from anti- GMOs, the government renews its contracts with the Monsanto Company every year to ensure that products introduced in the market are legal. The restrictions on trade of modified varieties hence need to remove such restrictions for the need for agricultural produce got sustain the increasing populations. To increase the market knowledge about the existence of these foods, the Monsanto group can make use of new marketing strategies, which are more likely to be efficient when compared to the old methods of advertising. Some of the new methods may involve active participation of the consumer and the government. The use of the social sites like internet pages may help establish a greater connectivity with the constituents in the market and hence increase the trust by the consumers. Other methods may involve giving samples to customers and giving reward to its consumers. Consumers also need to get approval from the authorities showing how efficient the products may be and assuring its natives of secure commodities. The consumer attitude towards this foods results to the need for the government to protect its citizens from harmful products that may endanger their lives.

Equivalence in Translation Essay Example for Free

Equivalence in Translation Essay Professionally, however, the term translation is | |confined to the written, and the term interpretation to the spoken (Newmark, 1991: 35). If confined to a written language, translation is a | |cover term with three distinguishable meanings: 1) translating, the process (to translate; the activity rather than the tangible object), 2)| |a translation: the product of the process of translating (e. g. the translated text), and 3) translation: the abstract concept which | |encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process Bell (1991: 13). The term translation used and discussed | |throughout this paper is confined to the written language, and refers to both the product and process of translating. | | | |The definitions of translation suggested above imply that producing the same meaning or message in the target language text as intended by | |the original author is the main objective of a translator. This notion of sameness is often understood as an equivalence relation between | |the source and target texts. This equivalence relation is generally considered the most salient feature of a quality translation. | | | |2. Problems of Equivalence | | | |The principle that a translation should have an equivalence relation with the source language text is problematic. There are three main | |reasons why an exact equivalence or effect is difficult to achieve. Firstly, it is impossible for a text to have constant interpretations | |even for the same person on two occasions (Hervey, Higgins and Haywood (1995: 14). According to these translation scholars: | | | |before one could objectively assess textual effects, one would need to have recourse to a fairly detailed and exact theory of psychological | |effect, a theory capable, among other things, of giving an account of the aesthetic sensations that are often paramount in response to a | |text (Hervey, Higgins and Haywood (1995: 14). | | | |Secondly, translation is a matter of subjective interpretation of translators of the source language text. Thus, producing an objective | |effect on the target text readers, which is the same as that on the source text readers is an unrealistic expectation. Thirdly, it may not | |be possible for translators to determine how audiences responded to the source text when it was first produced (ibid, p. 14). Miao (2000) | |gives a specific example of the impossibility of the equivalence relation: | | | |If an original was written centuries ago and the language of the original is difficult to comprehend for modern readers, then a simplified | |translation may well have greater impact on its readers that the original had on the readers in the source culture. No translator would | |hinder the readers comprehension by using absolute expressions in order to achieve equivalent effect (Miao, 2000: 202) | | | |Because the target text can never be equivalent to the source text at all levels, researchers have distinguished different types of | |equivalence (Lauscher, 2000: 151). Nida (1964) suggests formal and dynamic or functional equivalence. Formal equivalence focuses attention | |on the message itself, in both form and content. It requires that the message in the target language should match as closely as possible the| |different elements in the source language (p.159). Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the | |relationship between the receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the | |message (p. 159). Newmark (1981) makes a distinction between communicative and semantic translation. Like Nidas dynamic equivalence, | |communicative translation also tries to create the effect on the target text reader which is the same as that received by readers of the | |source language text. Koller (1997) proposes denotative, connotative, pragmatic, textual, formal and aesthetic equivalence. Munday (2001) | |describes these five different types of equivalence as follows: | |1. Denotative equivalence is related to equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text. | |2. Connotative equivalence is related to the lexical choices, especially between near-synonyms. | |3. Text-normative equivalence is related to text types, with texts behaving in different ways. | |4. Pragmatic equivalence, or communicative equivalence, is oriented towards the receiver of the text or message. | |5. Formal equivalence is related to the form and aesthetics of the text, includes word plays and the individual stylistic features of the | |source text (p. 47). | | | |Baker (1992) classifies various problems of equivalence in translation and suggests some strategies to deal with them. Adopting a bottom-up | |approach, she begins with simple words and phrases and continues with grammatical, textual and pragmatic equivalences. | | | |3. Strategies to solve problems of equivalence | | | |As has been mentioned above, problems of equivalence occur at various levels, ranging from word to textual level. The equivalence problems | |emerge due to semantic, socio-cultural, and grammatical differences between the source language and the target language. These three areas | |of equivalence problems are intertwined with one another. The meaning(s) that a word refers to are culturally bound, and in most cases the | |meaning(s) of a word can only be understood through its context of use. | | | |Due to semantic, socio-cultural, grammatical differences between the source language and the target language, loss and addition of | |information in translation cannot be avoided. Basnett-McGuire (1991) states that once the principle is accepted that sameness cannot exist | |between the two languages, it is possible to approach the question of loss and gain in the translation process (p. 30). Bell (1991: 6) | |suggests a similar point that something is always lost or, one might suggest, gained in the process, and according to Nida (1975), all | |types of translation involve 1) loss of information, 2) addition of information, and /or 3) skewing of information (p. 27). To conform to | |the stylistic demands and grammatical conventions of the target language, structural adjustment in translation is inevitably needed. These | |possibilities are expanded below. | | | |3. 1 Addition of information | | | |Information which is not present in the source language text may be added to the target language text. According to Newmark (1988: 91), | |information added to the translation is normally cultural (accounting for the differences between SL and TL culture), technical (relating to| |the topic), or linguistic (explaining wayward use of words). The additional information may be put in the text (i. e. by putting it in | |brackets) or out of the text (i.e. by using a footnote or annotation). Such additional information is regarded as an extra explanation of | |culture-specific concepts (Baker, 1992) and is obligatory specification for comprehension purposes. Native speakers of Batak Tapanuli | |language (the native language of Batak community in North Sumatra), for example, have the word marhusip which literally means to whisper. | |If the word marhusip is used in the context of discussing marriage within the community in question, its meaning is more than to whisper. | |It refers specifically to a situation where family members of the bride meet family members of the groom to talk about the dowry. In the | |meeting, family members of the bride whisper with one another while deciding the amount of dowry they ask from the groom. Family members of | |the groom also do they same thing while deciding whether to accept or reject it. In this context, the word marhusip may be translated into | |to whisper, but additional information to clarify the meaning of marhusip is needed to help target readers understand its underlying | |concept. | | | |Addition of information for specification purposes is also required if ambiguity occurs in the receptor language formation and if the fact | |that greater specificity may be required so as to avoid misleading reference (Nida, 1964: 227). It would be misleading, for example, if the| |word men in Tannen is an apologist for men is translated into para pria in Indonesian. The reason is that it does not actually refer to men | |in general but to American men in particular, who became the focus of Tannens study on male-female interactions. It can be argued that | |translators should add the word Amerika to the Indonesian version to avoid ambiguity or to avoid a misleading interpretation of the outcomes| |of the study by Indonesian readers (Nababan, 2003). | | | |Amplification from implicit to explicit status is another factor that requires additions. In relation to this, Nida (1964) states that | |important semantic elements carried implicitly in the source language may require explicit identification in the receptor language (p. | |227). In a given context, the meaning of the sentence, This rule is to round to the nearest even number, is implicitly stated and can easily| |be understood by readers of the original text (See Nababan, 1989 and 1999) If translated into Indonesian, an addition of information of | |suatu angka yang berada pada dua batas kategori (a number lying between two categories) and alteration of word class (the active verb | |membulatkan into the passive verb dibulatkan) are required to achieve grammaticality and produce an explicit meaning for Indonesian readers. | |It is by convention the Indonesian transitive verb membulatkan, as the equivalence of to round, needs an object. In such case, that sentence| |should be rendered into: | | | |Target sentence: | |Menurut aturan pembulatan ini, suatu angka yang berada pada batas dua kategori dibulatkan ke angka genap terdekat. | | | |Back-translation: | |According to the rule, a number lying between two categories is rounded to the nearest even number. | | | |Addition of information may also be required due to the shift of voice and the alteration of word classes to avoid misinterpretation (Nida, | |1964: 227). The word cut in I cut my finger is an active voice. If translated into Indonesian, the word class should be changed into a | |passive one, tersayat (was cut) and the addition of oleh pisau (with knife) is needed if a native speaker of Indonesian means that he or she| |did it by accident. There are also cases where two languages use a different class of words and a different level of utterances to denote | |the same meaning. The adjective adjustable in I have an adjustable chair is changed or translated into an adjective clause yang dapat | |disetel (which can be adjusted) in which the addition of yang (which) is obligatory to achieve grammaticality. | | | |3. 2 Deletion of information | | | |Baker (1992: 40) refers to deletion as omission of a lexical item due to grammatical or semantic patterns of the receptor language (Baker,| |1992: 40). She states further that | | | |this strategy may sound rather drastic, but in fact it does no harm to omit translating a word or expression in some contexts. If the | |meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader | |with lengthy explanations, translators can and often do simply omit translating the word or expression in question (Baker, 1992: 40). | | | |There are cases where omission is required to avoid redundancy and awkwardness (Nida, 1964: 228) and this strategy is particularly applied | |if the source language tends be a redundant language. The category of plural in English is both morphologically conditioned (e.g. | |child/children, mouse/mice), and phonologically conditioned (e. g. book/books, box/boxes, pen/pens). In some circumstances, a plural noun is | |also preceded by a determiner showing plurality (some books, three pens). If the double expression of such category is reflected in | |Indonesian, redundancy will occur. It is by convention that the category of plural in Indonesian is lexically formed by repetition of the | |noun buku-buku (book-book) or by adding a noun quantifier such as beberapa (some) or tiga (three). Once a given noun is in the plural form, | |the quantifier has to be deleted. On the other hand, once there exists a quantifier denoting plurality, the noun in question should be in | |the singular form or the repetition of the noun should be avoided. | | | |As implicitly stated by Baker (1992: 40) above, deletion may also refer to pieces of content rather than restructuring for grammatical | |purposes. Such a deletion of expressions or information is debatable in relation to the translation of academic texts, however. Anyone who | |writes an academic text, for example, will not include unimportant information in his or her writing. Similarly, anyone who reads such a | |text should consider that all information in the text is important. Translators are not an exception; they should read the text as the | |original reader or a non-translator reader reads it. That is to say that this notion of information deletion should not be used as an | |excuse to hide the inability of translators to understand and transfer message of the original text. | | | |3. 3. Structural adjustment | | | |Structural adjustment is another important strategy for achieving equivalence. Structural adjustment which is also called shift (see | |Catford, 1965) or transposition (see Vinay and Darbellnet, 1977) or alteration (see Newmark, 1988) refers to a change in the grammar from SL| |to TL (Newmark, 1988: 85). Similarly, Bell (1991: 6) states that to shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the | |forms. The alteration of form may mean changes of categories, word classes, and word orders. Structural adjustment, according to Nida (1964:| |226), has various purposes, including: 1) to permit adjustment of the form of the message to the requirements of structure of the receptor | |language, 2) to produce semantically equivalent structures, 3) to provide equivalent stylistic appropriateness, and 4) to carry an | |equivalent communication load. | | | |Newmark (1988: 85-87) divides the shift of forms into four types. One type of shift is the change from singular to plural or in the position| |of adjective. The position of an adjective in English, for example, may occur before a noun (i.e. a difficult text) or before and after a | |noun (i. e. a difficult text available in the library). An adjective in Indonesian always comes before a noun. Therefore, a difficult text | |and a difficult text available in the library should be translated into sebuah teks sulit (a difficult text) and sebuah teks sulit yang | |tersedia di perpustakaan itu (a difficult text which is available in the library or a difficult text available in the library) respectively. | |A second type of shift is required when a SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL. In English, for example, cohesive devices such | |as however and nevertheless may be put at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. In Indonesian, such cohesive devices always occur at| |the beginning of a sentence. The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with | |natural usage in the TL. The English sentence The man to whom she is talking on the phone lives in Jakarta can be translated literally into | |Laki-laki kepada siapa dia sedang berbicara di telepon tinggal di Jakarta. This literal translation is accurate in content but doesnt sound| |Indonesian . To conform to natural usage in Indonesian, the structure of the sentence should be adjusted into Laki-laki yang sedang | |berbicara dengannya di telpon tinggal di Jakarta (The man who is talking to her on the phone lives in Jakarta). The fourth type of | |transposition is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure (see Newmark, 1988: 87). | |In addition to the types of alteration described above, alterations of word classes (i. e. shifts from one class of words to another or from | |word level to phrase or clause level) are also required due to grammatical differences between the source and target languages. The | |preposition with in I am married with three young girls is changed into a conjunction dan (and), and the verb mempunyai needs to be added in| |Indonesian. The prepositional phrase in red in The woman in red is my wife is altered into an adjective clause yang berbaju merah (who wears| |the red clothes). | | | | | |References | | | |Baker, M. 1992. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Sage Publication. | |Bell, R. T. 1991. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London: Longman. | |Bassnett-McGuire, S. 1991. Translation Studies. New York: Methuen Co.Ltd. | |Catford, J. C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Longman. | |Hervey, S. , Higgins, I. , and Haywood, L. M. 1995. Thinking Spanish Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Spanish into English. | | London; New York: Routledge. | |Koller, W. 1995. â€Å"The concept of equivalence and the object of translation studies†. Target, 7 (2), 191-222. | |Miao, J. 2000. â€Å"The limitations of equivalent effect†. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, Vol. 8. No. 3, 197-205. | |Munday, J. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies. London; New York: Routledge. | |Nababan, M. R. 2003. â€Å"Translation Processes, Practices and Products of Professional Indonesian Translators. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Schools| |of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. | |_________. 1999. Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. | |_________. 1989. â€Å"Analisis terjemahan buku Research Methods and Analysis: Searching for Relationship karya Michael H. Walizer dan Paul, W. | |Wienir ke dalam bahasa Indonesia oleh Sadiman dan Hutagaol†. Unpublished Thesis. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret. | |Newmark, P. 1991. About Translation. Great Britain: Longdunn Press, Ltd. | |__________. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice-Hall International. | |__________. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press | |Nida, E. 1975. Language Structure and Translation. Standford, California: Standford University Press. | |______. 1964. Towards a Science of Translating. Leiden: Brill. | |Vinay, J. P. and Darbelnet, J. 1965. Stylistique Comparee du Francois et de L’angalis. Paris: Didier. | http://www. proz. com/translation-articles/articles/2071/1/EQUIVALENCE-IN-TRANSLATION%3ASOME-PROBLEM-SOLVING-STRATEGIES

Foucaults Theory Of Power

Foucaults Theory Of Power The entire work of Michael Foucault is one of the most important and innovative theoretical productions of the 20th century. It has been characterized as complex, daring and often in conflict with the prevailing views of his time whereas it still rises, over twenty years after his death, many debates and controversies in the fields of philosophy and political theory (Zdoukou 2007). Hence, the theoretical framework of this research is based on his work. The piece of work that I analyze in this thesis is the theory of power. Drawing on this notion, I will investigate the implementation of the screening programmes not only as a quest for their necessity in order to reduce the cervical cancer incidence rates but also as a process of working on the self. Thus personal responsibility is created that deploys the discourse on self-care (Heyes 2006). In order to people adopt the personal responsibility, health education and promotion is essential. According to Foucault, power is developed around a principal axis which can be described as the analysis of objectification, forms of knowledge and power relations through which people in western societies become subjects and objects of knowledge and power. Starting from his book Discipline and punish, Foucault studies the disciplinary power and how the perception of imprisonment, for example in the Panopticon, under the disciplinary society has been established in the modern society. In the same book he proceeds to the most radical use of the concept of the body in which disciplinary power is instituted not only to control them but also to make them productive themselves. Through the continuous surveillance, the detailed collection, recording and classification of behaviors and tendencies a new subject established, the inmate. The inmate under the surveillance system is induced to watch over himself because he is offered the illusion that he is monitored. Thus in the theory of power, discipline and surveillance take place through the screening programmes which reflect the governance of the self and create subjected and practiced bodies. Contrary to anatomo-politics of the human body which was created in the 18th century, Foucault goes into a criticism and deals with the notion of bio-politics which isnt concentrated on the individual bodies, but on the management of the populations. Hence, the sum of these docile bodies in the society establishes the management of the popul ation (bio-politics) (Broer 2012). Thus, Foucault theory of power has set a main question that this research will investigate: what are the factors that influence the female populations decision on receiving the screening tests and ultimately become docile bodies? The development of the National Health Systems in the UK and Greece National Health Service (NHS) The United Kingdom is a sovereign state located in the north-west Europe. It includes the island of Great Britain, a north-east part of Iceland as well as smaller islands and it covers a population of almost 62.5 millions of people (Chang, et al. 2011) (Currie and Guah 2007). The UK provides a national health service to all permanent residents about 58 millions of people- which is free at the point of need and is paid out of general taxation (Chang, et al. 2011) (Gorsky 2008). The national health system of the UK is the main representative of the national health systems worldwide. It belongs to the Beveridge model whose main characteristics are the increased state intervention and state funding of health services (Yfantopoylos 2005). NHS is the first completed health system which provided universal and free healthcare for all, based on the principles of social solidarity and equal access to healthcare services (Yfantopoylos 2005). Initially until 1900, the UK didnt provide a social insurance system. Any social insurance, in the sense of the protection of the population, was offered by the church. Healthcare was available only to the wealthy and those who could seek treatment through charity or teaching hospitals (Chang, et al. 2011). Because of the fact that the national funding in the health sector was lacking, the hospitals were in poor financial conditions (Shortell and Gibson 1971). During the Second World War, a public health system was designed that aimed to offer services covering the whole population and its services were financed by central taxation (Chang, et al. 2011). In 1942 the Beveridge report was vital for a health system that protects the population against social dangers such as unemployment and sickness (Yfantopoylos 2005). Ultimately, the Beveridge report was the first step towards a national health service that protects the whole population. In 1948 the National Health System (NHS) was cre ated by the Labour government following the Beveridge review (Currie and Guah 2007) and implementing the 1946 NHS Act regulation (Yfantopoylos 2005). Since its inception the most challenging and notable change the NHS brought was that the health system was split into three services; the hospital services, the primary care and community services (Chang, et al. 2011). After the creation of the NHS all hospitals were under the government ownership. An additional hospital management structure of regional hospital boards and hospital management committees was designed to support the hospital services. The national health system upgraded the role of the General Practitioners (GPs) who were administered separately (Gorsky 2008) and served as gatekeepers of the primary care directing the patients to the different levels of healthcare (Yfantopoylos 2005). The primary care consists of dental, pharmaceutical and ophthalmic services and was organized by executive councils. Maternity, child health, midwifery, health visiting, home nursing and other post hospital services were administered by local health authorities (Shortell and Gibson 1971). The main purpose of this NHS structure was to provide a comprehensive, universal and free healthcare (Gorsky 2008) at the point of need focusing on the equity in the access to healthcare services. Currently, the UK still has a state-sponsored healthcare system called NHS in which belong the National Health Service (England), NHS Scotland, NHS Wales and Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland (Chang, et al. 2011). The government funding covers the 85% of the healthcare expenditure while the remaining 15% is covered by the growing private sector (Chang, et al. 2011). The NHS organization is highly institutionalized and complex system. It consists of parliament, a secretary of state for health, other non-NHS organizations and strategic health authorities. Under these health authorities reside the NHS trusts, foundation trusts, primary care trusts and care trusts (Currie and Guah 2007) whereas NICE, an independent organization, is responsible for monitoring and reporting its performance to the parliament (Yfantopoylos 2005) (Currie and Guah 2007). As an institutionalized environment, UK has created a public sector with universal and free healthcare coverage at the point of need. Additionally, what has developed is a public sector ethos which is enriched by the value of serving the public (Currie and Guah 2007). Health professionals have set this value above any finance and cost-effectiveness issues whereas treatment is provided according to medical need irrespective of ability to pay (Currie and Guah 2007). This is the reason why the NHS has been proved to be the most efficient healthcare system in terms of quality, equity and access to healthcare among industrialized countries (Chang, et al. 2011). Within this framework, the NHS has developed various policies and institutionalized mechanisms for the best performance of the organization. One area has been in the implementation of cervical cancer screening strategies. Table 1: Current NHS Structure, July 2010 (youngfoundation.org) Greek Healthcare system (ESY) Alike the UK, Greece provides a national health system since 1983 which guarantees universal coverage and equity in access to healthcare services to 10 million legal residents (iefimerifa.gr, 2012) (statistics.gr, 2011) irrespective of any professional or regional conditions. In addition to the Greek population, healthcare is offered to all European and non European citizens based on multilateral and bilateral agreements (Saitakis and Papamichail 2005). The process that Greece followed in order to establish a universal healthcare system strongly resembles the one the UK developed several years before. Since the establishment of the Greek State there has been a great attempt to create a welfare state and organize the public health services in Greece. However, as in the UK, until 1900, only 10% of the Greek population, namely the wealthiest was offered healthcare coverage. With the introduction of the Ministry of Hygiene and Social Welfare in 1922 the level of care provided by the public hospitals was considered equally advanced, compared with other healthcare systems in Europe (WHO 1996). At that time, due to changes in the political arena, the refugees wave coming from Turkey stressed the need to create organized health authorities in order to meet the various health problems that occurred. In 1953 the first serious move was made by the government to establish an integrated and decentralized healthcare system (Katsikari 2011) creati ng health regions and councils in order to provide specialized and advanced health opinions based on morbidity (WHO 1996). Twenty years later and having been through a hard political period of dictatorship, Greece was flourished in all areas and the healthcare system was one of them. New social objectives were re-defined and new policies were implemented which intended to improve the health services, to reduce the inequalities in the access to healthcare and reallocate the limited resources in favor of the poor (Yfantopoulos 2001). It was in 1983 when the government passed legislation for the implementation of a National Health Service (ESY) which is the fundamental law of the National Healthcare System (Makaronis, et al. 2010). This legislation is still characterized as a major reform achievement for the reconstruction of the health system. However, its implementation didnt bring any changes in the management of the healthcare sector to ensure its effectiveness. This reform was bas ed on the principle that health is a social good which has to be provided by the State to the whole population regardless of social or economic conditions (Katsikari 2011). Other basic principles of this reform included the equity in the delivery of the healthcare services, the decentralization of the health services, the importance of the primary care creating a system of referral, social security, and the mix of public-private services (Katsikari 2011). The health policy in Greece was developed steadily over time and it was influenced but the trends of society, the human values, medicine and economy without plans and goals. Only after the Second World War did the organizing of the health authorities became essential in developed countries with a significant millstone the introduction of the National Health Service in the UK (Katsikari 2011). Currently, the welfare state in Greece is characterized as the combination of a social security system (Bismarck model) and a National Health Service system (Beveridge model) where everybody is entitled to the same healthcare treatment (Rovithis 2006). It is highly centralized and fragmented in which all the decisions are made from the central administration whereas the regional health authorities have limited power on resources and control (Rovithis 2006). Today, alongside the ESY, there is an equally powerful private sector where the biggest part of the health expenditure is concentrated (Vard aros 2008). The Regional Authorities were developed as in the UK. In order to give greater responsibility to regions, Greek primary care is provided within the Regional Health Authorities (PESY) by the outpatient section of rural centers and hospitals, polyclinics and also specialists (Saitakis and Papamichail 2005) and covers services concerning the prevention and diagnosis of a disease. The secondary care is offered either by public or private hospitals of by social insurance funds hospitals and covers services for inpatient treatment under the supervision of the Ministry of Health and Social Solidarity (Yfantopoulos 2001). Even though the last 15 years Greece has taken some measures, the health policy still had certain problems. These problems were concentrated on the funding and the effectiveness of the health services within the ESY, the numerous sickness funds, the regional inequalities in the health services and the internal mismanagement of the public hospitals. These problems were managed by the highly centralized Ministry of health (Katsikari 2011). Contrary to the UK, Greece lacks of an institutional body that is responsible for monitoring the quality control of the health system as well as to provide national economic guidance based on the cost effectiveness principle such as the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the UK (Rovithis 2006). So, it isnt surprising that Greece is among the high spenders on healthcare, spending 9% of the GDP for a doubtful quality of the healthcare services (Katsikari 2011). For that reason, the IMF implemented in 2011 austerity measures. The health care system in Greece has undergone major changes in order to reduce the health expenditure and improve the quality. Specifically, since January 2012 the 39 sickness funds which existed until recently have been replaced by the National Organization of Health Services (EOPYY). This organization incorporates 4 of the biggest sickness funds covering the 85% of the total population. The fact that these changes are still ongoing, doesnt give any space to assess the effectiveness of the new healthcare system. The idea of bio-power In order to understand the power relations between the State and individuals, it is essential to investigate the conception of power by Michael Foucault. His perspective changes somewhere between his early work on institutions, that is the history of madness and the birth of the clinic, and his later work on sexuality and governmentality (College of Liberal Arts 2002). However the concept of power, that his work introduced, has set new dimensions to understand modern society. His genealogy of power challenges the assumption that it is a negative, repressive force that operates purely by law and practices of violence (A. Armstrong 2005) claiming that it turns the bodies into a useful and productive workforce. Power shouldnt be considered as a phenomenon of compact domination of a group or a class over another because he strongly believes that power is something that is exercised though an organization working as a chain and it permeates every class of the society either individually o r the population as a whole (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). The shift from the pre-modern to the modern forms of society involves the displacement of the sovereign power by the bio-power. Sovereign power was centralized and coordinated by a sovereign authority who exercised absolute control over the population (A. Armstrong 2005). Namely the body was central to the power upon which a detailed coercion is exercised. Anyone who challenged the monarchs authority triggered his wrath and this took the shape of spectacular public torture satisfying the masses (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). It was the 17th century when a profound transformation in terms of mechanisms of power has undergone in the West. As the growth and care of the population became the primary concern of each state (A. Armstrong 2005), the sovereign authority wasnt sufficient anymore to control the ever-growing population (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005) and the bio-power emerged focusing on the management of life. It was the moment where an art of the human body was born that mak es it more obedient and useful. The violent sovereign power had been replaced by the bio-power which was invested not only in the bodies of the population (Aroni 2008) but also in the soul. This type of power isnt a matter of life but essentially a matter of living where the bodies are regulated, trained, maintained and understood (Nettleton 2006). Instead of being exercised by means of violence celebrating death, bio-power focuses on the birth of life of individuals and populations (Ojakangas 2005) (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). The bio-power concept that Michael Foucault developed is determined as a positive power over people lives which manages, multiplies, and exerts specific control and regularities to the population (Mitrossili 2008) and particularly discipline the human life, death, work, sadness or happiness of the person, mental health, sexual practices and family life (A. Armstrong 2005). So the West entered the era of biopolitics. Its the same period that Foucault goes into a criticism and attaches to bio-power a double meaning; the anatomo-politics (Mitrossili 2008), or as Foucault labels it disciplinary power (A. Armstrong 2005) a form of power that addresses individuals, and bio-politics which concerns the population management (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). These two poles complement each other (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). Therefore, within the modern disciplinary society, social control can be achieved by means of strategies of normalization or strategies which produce self-regulated, normalized individuals (A. Armstrong 2005). The notion of the disciplinary power becomes clearer in his later work on the history of sexuality, where the notion of the body is central as a field to exercise power in Western countries. In the beginning of the industrialization in the 17th century, the human body had to become available and functional for the capitalism and the paid work. The impoverished, illiterate and unhealthy populations should consist of significant importance as valuable workforce for the governments. The latter created such a population policy to adapt the populations to the capital requirements (Bartky 2007). So they had to discipline in the workplace for the steadily growing production and they had to comply with the minimum standards of hygiene to avoid epidemics. In order to achieve the aforementioned, they should have stable family life. Birth rates, marriage age and sexual maturation suddenly were under strict control and bio-power was a response of that disorganized mass of individuals (Perron, Fl uet and Holmes 2005). Within this concept, the importance of sexuality is displayed in Foucaults work because on the one hand sexuality is related to body maintenance and on the other hand is related to the management of the populations (Aroni 2008). The spread of bio-power is intimately connected to the social science discourses on sex and sexuality on the grounds that these discourses tended to understand sex as an instinctual and biological process. This process has deep links to identity and thus potential effects on the sexual or social behavior of individuals (A. Armstrong 2005). Through a historical research in various communities, Foucault concludes that the conception of sexuality is considered a main expression of the disciplinary power which is central in the modern society. Power, through its directing and normalizing nature, is an instrument of control whereas surveillance and discipline procedures characterize the discourse on the care of the individuals. The establish ment of the health disciplinary technology prepares the individuals for the bio-politics in modern society because the manipulation of individuals through specific practices such as diet and exercise, make the person responsible for maintaining the fitness of his body (discipline of the body) and consequently the bodies of the population (bio-politics) are controlled. Thus according to Sara Lee Bartky, sexuality operates as connecting link between the discipline of the body and the population management (Bartky 2007). As long as individuals are responsible for maintaining and controlling their bodies, new fields of knowledge are created (Aroni 2008). Surveillance and control concepts, adopt a new meaning because individuals will set their own practices such as exercise and healthy nutrition with greater discipline. While the perceptions on the human body changed in the 20th century, their willingness to be controlled towards a proper functioning is the most important feature of the development of a public policy concentrated on health and life. So, the body becomes the objective and the target of the power. The easiest way to grasp the notion of the disciplinary power is to consider what Foucault studies in the discipline and punish. In this work he examines this new mode of surveillance which is best illustrated by Jeremy Benthams Panopticon (D. Armstrong 1983). The Panopticon enables the simultaneous monitoring and observation, certainty, knowledge and individualization. Specifically it was a building designed for complete, constant and anonymous surveillance of its subjects. It was arranged as a ring at the center of which was a tower. The peripheral building was divided into cells. Each cell had two windows, one allowing light to fall on the inmate and another one which allowed a guard to c ontrol the actions of the inmates, like so many cages, so many small theatres in which each actor is alone, perfectly individualized and constantly visible (D. Armstrong 1983). The central tower was equipped with large windows looking at the inner side of the peripheral ring (Foucault 1989). Visibility was a trap. In this model, inmates dont interact with each other and they constantly confronted with the panoptic power (Foucault 1989). Consequently, the design of the Panopticon was such that the guard had total surveillance of the inmates actions. Under this surveillance, never knowing if or by whom one is being observed, the inmates were induced to watch over themselves (Nettleton 2006) and they were trained to resist any impulse of misbehavior for fear of being caught. Indeed, the inmates are offered the illusion that they are permanently monitored. Seen through the lens of the disciplinary power, the Panopticon serves as an architectural model which successfully shows that the enforcement of rules has shifted from the spectacle of the power of violence enacted upon the body of the subjects, to the power of discipline coded into the soul of the prisoners, under the gaze of the Panopticon, focusing not on the punishment of the biological but on the social body (Bartky 2007). This way, the subject becomes the object of knowledge that can be studied and individualized through collecting information about all those prisoners that are contained in it (Nettleton 2006). Ultimately, the Panopticon creates a state where people police themselves unconsciously. Indeed, Benthams goal was to create an architectural idea that, ultimately, could function, on its own (College of Liberal Arts 2002). In this stunning critique of the modern society, Michel Foucault highlighted the way constant surveillance isnt only directed to control the human body, but also to discipline the mind and soul to produce the self-awareness state that the modern society requires (A. Armstrong 2005). These disciplinary practices subject the human body into continuous and constant surveillance and examination aiming to optimize the bodys capabilities, productivity and skills and to foster its usefulness and docility (A. Armstrong 2005): What was then being formed was a policy of coercions that act on the body, a calculated manipulation of its elements, its gestures, its behavior, the human body was entering a machinery of power that explores it, breaks it down and rearranges ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Thus discipline produces subjected and practiced bodies, docile bodies (Foucault 1989). The aforementioned complex surveillance and discipline system aims to create a type of person which urban society needs. That is the creation of a human being obedient, occupied by the feeling of being guilty and adaptable to all modern tactics. Thus, the body turns into central, transformed and improved by different techniques which monitored and analyzed it. This different way of seeing the body is the outcome of surveillance. Screening programmes as an instrument of biopower Since 2003 the European Council has adopted various guidelines according to which cervical cancer should be screened on population based, quality assured, organized screening tests (Anttila, et al. 2009) to achieve greater participation. These recommendations were supported by clinical trial evidence that through organized cytology the mortality rates could be reduced importantly. (Arbyn, et al. 2007) Additional recommendations describe extensively the organization and implementation of the screening tests, recommended screening age groups and screening intervals as well as policies on monitoring and evaluating the screening programmes (Anttila, et al. 2009) (Nicula, et al. 2009). The Pap test, or cytology, is the best known, most reliable and efficient test of secondary prevention (ACCP 2004) to decrease the incidence and the mortality rates by cervical cancer, highly recommended by the EU (Anttila, et al. 2009). Nevertheless, non-organized programmes have also contributed in the de creasing of the mortality and the incidence, but not to the same magnitude. Until the early 60s, few people had heard of cervical cancer in the UK as a public concern and women were screened very rarely. In particular, they were screened only when they visited their GP, or attended obstetric or family planning clinics. This opportunistic screening led to inefficient focus on young women (Peto, et al. 2004) and women at higher risk (Eardley, et al. 1985). Although cervical cancer screening expanded steadily since 1967 at no cost, it failed to achieve high coverage rates and sufficient follow-up of women. Especially after a media storm when a woman having never received her abnormal screening results, died by cervical cancer, the opportunistic screening was overhauled (Raffle 2007). The constantly rising incidence and mortality rates in young cohorts (Arbyn, et al. 2009), boosted the NHS in 1988 to provide organized national programme for cervical cancer prevention (Bastos, et al. 2010). Eventually, it introduced the call and recall system. Since then, screeni ng tests have reduced the average cervical cancer incidence by 33% in the period 1991-1993 and 1998-2000 (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). Using a National Health System list, women of 25-65 years old (Foley, et al. 2011) received a personal invitation in order to be offered free regular Pap smear testing, HPV testing or liquid based cytology by GPs or nurses (Linos and Riza 2000) to detect and treat cervical abnormalities. Even though screening tests were administered nationally, the personal invitations were managed regionally. (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). This -call and recall-system was organized by local authorities, the Primary Care Trusts. These authorities were responsible for reminding the eligible women of the region by personal invitations their regular screening test (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006) with a recommended interval from 3 to 5 years, depending on the womans age (Bunn 2008)(Cancer Research UK, 2012) and the regional authority (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). In order to ensure high participation of women in the screening tests, in 1990 a system of payments for the GPs was launched, according to wh ich, the payment was received only if women have been screened in the previous 5 years (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). This system demonstrated high participation levels where almost 80% of eligible women had been screened in the last years (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). The screening coverage rose from 42% in 1988 to 85%, 6 years later (Arbyn, et al. 2009) and the overall incidence of cervical cancer in the female population of 20-29 years old shows that it has declined significantly from the onset of the organized screening tests up until 1991 (Foley, et al. 2011). For that reason, the UK still applies this call and recall system in a target population of 14 million of women (Linos and Riza 2000) aged 25-64 years old (in Scotland from age 20) (Bunn 2008). Besides, cervical cancer screening is, and always has been, free provided and the screening costs were administered by the NHS (Whynesa, Philips and Avis 2007). However, the Pap smear method doesnt test for cervical cancer; instead, it detects, (Bastos, et al. 2010) cell abnormalities which, if left untreated, can potentially lead to cancer. In order to perform the Pap smear method, the UK uses advanced laboratory quality assurance, training and performance standards of reporting (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). Today, more that 3.5 million women in the UK are screened every year, the vast majority of which as a reply to the call-recall system (Whynesa, Philips and Avis 2007). Another significant proportion still is screened opportunistically. Nevertheless, it is surprising though that recent d ata demonstrate a profound increase in the incidence rates by 2.2% between 1992 and 2006 (Foley, et al. 2011) (Peto, et al. 2004). This increasing trend hints that HPV epidemic might be increased in the future. In addition to screening tests, the HPV vaccines were introduced in many countries globally including the UK. The rapid approval of such vaccines by the European Medicines Agency (EMEA) demonstrated that decision-makers in the UK were aware of what the outcome of such a prevention strategy would be and that the reduction in the incidence of the disease would be significant. Indeed, the national HPV immunization programme prevents from cervical cancer almost 400 deaths per year (Martin, et al. 2011). In 2007, a VENICE report was conducted which, even though provided recommendation in Austria and Germany it questioned the benefits of the vaccination over the benefits of screening (Raffle 2007). In the beginning of 2008 the Department of Health in UK announced the inclusion of the HPV vaccination in the national immunization programme (Bastos, et al. 2010). The Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunization (JCVI) in collaboration with the Department of Health decided to vaccinate girl s aged 12-13 years old and additionally to promote vaccination of females only up to 18 years old because the vaccination of the female population older than 18 years would not consist of cost-effective (Bunn 2008). Male population isnt included in the immunization programme for economic reasons (Martin, et al. 2011). Scotland was the first of the four UK countries which introduced the HPV vaccination in September 2008 at the beginning of the school year for all 12-13 year old girls (Gasparini and Panato 2009). The power in the healthcare sector relies on the examinations (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005) so screening programmes could be considered the vehicle of disciplinary technology. Consequently, the organized screening programmes attract the Foucauldian approach because they are a particular version of the panoptic idea (Heyes 2006). The organized screening tests operate as the Panopticon building. This surveillance system aims to set the entire female population under a continual control and to ensure that it is subjected with respect to the requirements of the state; namely the bio-politics. Furthermore, Foucault suggests that discipline depends on the relationship between the body and its observing gaze rather than on the population. The perfect disciplinary apparatus would make it possible for a single gaze to see everything constantly, he notes (D. Armstrong 1983). Namely, discipline includes the strict monitoring. Diagnostic programmes, intending to promote health and prevent from a disease are the best examples to illustrate their relation with bio-politics. With the call and recall notification women are invited to arrange an appointment with their GP or their primary care